Ancient DNA reveals an early African origin of cattle in the Americas – University of Florida
Cattle may seem like uniquely American animals, steeped in the lore of cowboys, cattle drives and sprawling ranches. But cattle didn’t exist on the American continents prior to the arrival of the Spanish, who brought livestock with them from Europe by way of the Canary Islands.
In a new study, researchers analyzed ancient DNA from Spanish settlements in the Caribbean and Mexico. Their results indicate cattle were also imported from Africa early in the process of colonization, more than 100 years before their arrival was officially documented.
Records kept by Portuguese and Spanish colonists reference breeds from the Andalusian region of Spain but make no mention of transporting cattle from Africa. Some historians have interpreted this omission to mean that the first wave of colonists relied entirely on a small stock of European cattle initially shipped to the Caribbean Islands.
“Early studies concluded a few hundred animals were brought over in the early 16th century, which were then bred locally on Hispaniola. From there, the initial population was inferred to have spread across the Americas,” said lead author Nicolas Delsol, a postdoctoral associate at the Florida Museum of Natural History.
Nicolas Delsol uses the archaeological record to study the ways in which people have hunted, domesticated and dispersed animals through time.Florida Museum photo by Jeff Gage
During his second expedition in 1493, Columbus brought the first cattle to the Caribbean, where they were used as farm animals and a source of food. These new transplants did so well that feral livestock became a nuisance on the Island of Hispaniola. The Spanish distributed cattle widely through the Caribbean, and by 1525, foreign livestock were being farmed in parts of Central and South America. The Portuguese meanwhile moved related breeds from mainland Europe and the Cape Verde Islands to modern-day Brazil.
But researchers have reason to suspect the version of events gleaned from historical records was incomplete. In 1518, Emperor Charles V passed an edict making it legal to transport enslaved people directly from their homelands to the Americas, a practice which commenced less than three years later. In the ensuing decades, enslaved Africans would play a vital — and often unrecognized — role in the development of cattle ranching.
“The earliest ranchers in Mexico were nearly all of African ancestry,” Delsol said. “We know that people like the Fulani in West Africa formed herder societies in which they lived in what could be described as a symbiosis with cattle. Both these lines of evidence made us think there was a strong possibility that the Spanish brought cattle from the same region as the people they enslaved.”
Previous genetic studies seem to support this idea. DNA from modern American cattle bears the signature of their European ancestry, but it also reveals a history of hybridization with breeds from Africa and Asia. Without archaeological data, however, it’s not possible to pinpoint exactly when these events took place.
Scientists can study the diversity of modern cattle by sequencing DNA from living animals, but this method cannot reveal when different breeds originated without the addition of ancient DNA from the archaeological record.Florida Museum photo by Jeff Gage
The first records of African cattle in the Americas date back to the 1800s, when humped zebu from Senegal and n’dama cattle from Gambia were moved to areas with similar environments across the Atlantic. Beginning at roughly the same time and continuing into the 1900s, cattle domesticated in southeast Asia for thousands of years were also imported from India. Hybridization among these cattle led to common breeds that are still around today, such as the Senepol from the Virgin Islands and the American Brahman common in the tropics.
Do these records represent the first instance of cattle imported from regions other than Europe, or are they merely the continuation of a longstanding practice that had, until then, gone undocumented?
The only way to know for sure, Delsol said, would be to sequence ancient DNA from cows and bulls preserved during the colonial era. Researchers in only one other study had attempted to do, using 16th century bones from Jamaica, but their results were inconclusive.
Delsol gathered 21 bones from several archaeological sites. Seven were excavated in Puerto Real, a former ranching town in Hispaniola established in 1503 and abandoned decades later due to rampant piracy in the region. The remaining specimens correspond to 17th and 18th century sites in Central Mexico, including settlements and convents in a long arc from Mexico City to the Yucatán Peninsula.
Delsol sequenced DNA from 21 bone samples, retrieved from archaeological sites of varying age in Hispaniola and Mexico.Image by Delsol et al., 2023
After extracting DNA from bone material, he compared their genetic sequences with those of modern breeds around the world. As expected, most of the sequences shared a strong relationship with cattle from Europe, which was especially true for specimens from Puerto Real. Six of the bones from Mexico also had sequences common in African cattle but, crucially, also found in breeds present in southern Europe.
“To make things difficult, there are cattle in Spain similar to those in Africa due to centuries-long exchanges across the Strait of Gibraltar,” Delsol said.
But a tooth found in Mexico City stood out from the rest. Buried in the tooth’s mitochondria was a short sequence virtually unknown from anywhere other than Africa. The cow it came from likely lived in the late 1600s, pushing back the introduction of African cattle by more than a century.
When analyzed chronologically, the ancient DNA sequences show a clear pattern of increasing genetic diversity, indicating cattle were sourced from various locations early in the process of European colonization.Image by Delsol et al., 2023
When looked at over time, the bones also reveal a pattern of increasing genetic diversity. The oldest bones from Puerto Real and Xochimilco (a settlement south of Mexico City) all originated from European stock, whereas those from later sites in Mexico seem to have descended from animals more common in the Iberian Peninsula and Africa.
Taken together, the results suggest Spanish settlers began importing cattle directly from West Africa as far back as the early 1600s.
“Cattle ranching profoundly shaped the landscape and social systems across the American continents,” Delsol said. “We’ve known about the diverse genetic ancestry of American cattle for a long time, and now we have a more complete chronology for their introduction.”
The study was published in the journal Scientific Reports. Funding was provided in part by the National Science Foundation (grant no. 1930628).
Brian Stucky with the Agricultural Research Service, Jessica Oswald with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and Charles Cobb, Kitty Emery and Robert Guralnick of the Florida Museum of Natural History are also authors of the study.
Source: Nicolas Delsol, ndelsol@ufl.edu;Writer: Jerald Pinson, jpinson@flmnh.ufl.edu, 352-294-0452
Cattle may seem like uniquely American animals, steeped in the lore of cowboys, cattle drives and sprawling ranches. But cattle didn’t exist on the American continents prior to the arrival of the Spanish, who brought livestock with them from Europe by way of the Canary Islands.
In a new study, researchers analyzed ancient DNA from Spanish settlements in the Caribbean and Mexico. Their results indicate cattle were also imported from Africa early in the process of colonization, more than 100 years before their arrival was officially documented.
Records kept by Portuguese and Spanish colonists reference breeds from the Andalusian region of Spain but make no mention of transporting cattle from Africa. Some historians have interpreted this omission to mean that the first wave of colonists relied entirely on a small stock of European cattle initially shipped to the Caribbean Islands.
“Early studies concluded a few hundred animals were brought over in the early 16th century, which were then bred locally on Hispaniola. From there, the initial population was inferred to have spread across the Americas,” said lead author Nicolas Delsol, a postdoctoral associate at the Florida Museum of Natural History.
Florida Museum photo by Jeff Gage
During his second expedition in 1493, Columbus brought the first cattle to the Caribbean, where they were used as farm animals and a source of food. These new transplants did so well that feral livestock became a nuisance on the Island of Hispaniola. The Spanish distributed cattle widely through the Caribbean, and by 1525, foreign livestock were being farmed in parts of Central and South America. The Portuguese meanwhile moved related breeds from mainland Europe and the Cape Verde Islands to modern-day Brazil.
But researchers have reason to suspect the version of events gleaned from historical records was incomplete. In 1518, Emperor Charles V passed an edict making it legal to transport enslaved people directly from their homelands to the Americas, a practice which commenced less than three years later. In the ensuing decades, enslaved Africans would play a vital — and often unrecognized — role in the development of cattle ranching.
“The earliest ranchers in Mexico were nearly all of African ancestry,” Delsol said. “We know that people like the Fulani in West Africa formed herder societies in which they lived in what could be described as a symbiosis with cattle. Both these lines of evidence made us think there was a strong possibility that the Spanish brought cattle from the same region as the people they enslaved.”
Previous genetic studies seem to support this idea. DNA from modern American cattle bears the signature of their European ancestry, but it also reveals a history of hybridization with breeds from Africa and Asia. Without archaeological data, however, it’s not possible to pinpoint exactly when these events took place.
Florida Museum photo by Jeff Gage
The first records of African cattle in the Americas date back to the 1800s, when humped zebu from Senegal and n’dama cattle from Gambia were moved to areas with similar environments across the Atlantic. Beginning at roughly the same time and continuing into the 1900s, cattle domesticated in southeast Asia for thousands of years were also imported from India. Hybridization among these cattle led to common breeds that are still around today, such as the Senepol from the Virgin Islands and the American Brahman common in the tropics.
Do these records represent the first instance of cattle imported from regions other than Europe, or are they merely the continuation of a longstanding practice that had, until then, gone undocumented?
The only way to know for sure, Delsol said, would be to sequence ancient DNA from cows and bulls preserved during the colonial era. Researchers in only one other study had attempted to do, using 16th century bones from Jamaica, but their results were inconclusive.
Delsol gathered 21 bones from several archaeological sites. Seven were excavated in Puerto Real, a former ranching town in Hispaniola established in 1503 and abandoned decades later due to rampant piracy in the region. The remaining specimens correspond to 17th and 18th century sites in Central Mexico, including settlements and convents in a long arc from Mexico City to the Yucatán Peninsula.
Image by Delsol et al., 2023
After extracting DNA from bone material, he compared their genetic sequences with those of modern breeds around the world. As expected, most of the sequences shared a strong relationship with cattle from Europe, which was especially true for specimens from Puerto Real. Six of the bones from Mexico also had sequences common in African cattle but, crucially, also found in breeds present in southern Europe.
“To make things difficult, there are cattle in Spain similar to those in Africa due to centuries-long exchanges across the Strait of Gibraltar,” Delsol said.
But a tooth found in Mexico City stood out from the rest. Buried in the tooth’s mitochondria was a short sequence virtually unknown from anywhere other than Africa. The cow it came from likely lived in the late 1600s, pushing back the introduction of African cattle by more than a century.
Image by Delsol et al., 2023
When looked at over time, the bones also reveal a pattern of increasing genetic diversity. The oldest bones from Puerto Real and Xochimilco (a settlement south of Mexico City) all originated from European stock, whereas those from later sites in Mexico seem to have descended from animals more common in the Iberian Peninsula and Africa.
Taken together, the results suggest Spanish settlers began importing cattle directly from West Africa as far back as the early 1600s.
“Cattle ranching profoundly shaped the landscape and social systems across the American continents,” Delsol said. “We’ve known about the diverse genetic ancestry of American cattle for a long time, and now we have a more complete chronology for their introduction.”
The study was published in the journal Scientific Reports. Funding was provided in part by the National Science Foundation (grant no. 1930628).
Brian Stucky with the Agricultural Research Service, Jessica Oswald with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and Charles Cobb, Kitty Emery and Robert Guralnick of the Florida Museum of Natural History are also authors of the study.
Source: Nicolas Delsol, ndelsol@ufl.edu;
Writer: Jerald Pinson, jpinson@flmnh.ufl.edu, 352-294-0452
soccer
Awoniyi: Premier League My Dream – Score Nigeria – SCORE NIGERIA
More often than not, players’ career fortunes pirouette on the altar of time and chance. Taiwo Awoniyi can attest to that. Had Awoniyi paid for his university exams on the day he was supposed to, in Ilorin, north-central Nigeria, playing in the Premier League for Nottingham Forest, where his decisive goals saved them from relegation last season, might never have happened.
“My dad actually borrowed the money to pay for my exams,” he says. “I went to the person that was supposed to help register me for the exam in the morning and he was not around. I went there again in the evening and they told me he still wasn’t around. “It was on my way back from that trip that I got a call from the Imperial Soccer Academy [in Nigeria’s Ogun State], that they wanted me. I went back to my dad and said: ‘I do want to keep on going to school. But my passion is football, so let me use this money to get myself down to the academy.’ I think that was the turning point for me.”
Awoniyi (right) has been flying Nigerian flag high in Premier League
Awoniyi had been with the Unicorn Football Academy in Ilorin since he was “six or seven” and played for Nigeria as a 14-year-old at the Copa Coca-Cola Cup, a tournament for African teams, in London in 2011. A call-up to the Golden Eaglets, Nigeria’s Under-17 side, that won the 2013 World Cup in the UAE, earned the opportunity he had dreamed of – a five-year contract with Liverpool in 2015. But he never played for the club.
“We discovered that we needed a work permit and to get a permit I needed to play for Nigeria’s first team,” he says. “When I signed, my Nigeria teammate Kelechi Iheanacho got the work permit under the special talent scheme [to join Manchester City]. It was after him that they closed the special talent scheme.
“The only option I had was to keep on going on loan, with the hope that if I do well on loan and I play for the national team, I’ll be able to get the work permit and come back [to Liverpool]. I kept on going on loan. And the national team call-ups still didn’t come, so I didn’t have any other option than to keep on striving.”
In six years, Awoniyi went on loan to six clubs in Germany, the Netherlands and Belgium: FSV Frankfurt, NEC Nijmegen, Royal Excel Mouscron (twice), Gent, Mainz and Union Berlin. Then Union bought him from Liverpool for £6.5m in July 2021, before his move to Forest in 2022.
“It was really a hard and tough situation,” he says of the early years on loan, recalling how his family and Seyi Olofinjana, the former Wolves and Stoke midfielder who founded Imperial Soccer Academy, helped him through it.
“I didn’t really play a lot of games [at Frankfurt] … the team was relegated. I then went to Holland [Nijmegen] and that was another strange experience … we also got relegated … I said to myself, about the third year, if I go down again or I don’t make anything happen, I have to think about my football career.
“It was at Mouscron that I really discovered myself, that I saw myself as the player I wanted to be … I scored a goal in my first match and [10] goals with Mouscron that season.”
Taiwo Awoniyi shone at Mouscron
Liverpool gave him a second five-year contract but his journeyman status continued, at Gent and Mainz, via Mouscron again, until he found a real home at Union.
“I remember my first conversation with the coach. He said: ‘Taiwo, I’ve seen you. I think I can make you who you want to be as a player. But it is your decision to come.’ It was just an amazing club. It is what a football club should be, in terms of the people, the administrators, everything, especially the fans.”
Awoniyi’s form made him a cult hero, with his final goal for Union earning them a Europa League spot for the first time. “We needed to win. I remember that in the first half I had a penalty and I scored. We were then in the 88th or 89th minute … I was checking the time and I said: ‘No, these people have come a long way for us not to win …’
https://efb9095dae39658896226d0b4cb40cdb.safeframe.googlesyndication.com/safeframe/1-0-40/html/container.html “It’s taken them to where they want to be and where they should be as a club. And from there, they’re now playing in the Champions League. These people deserve even more than that … But they’ve always known that one day I will leave for the Premier League.”
Forest signed Awoniyi after ending a 23-year absence from England’s top division and he knew helping them stay up would constitute a successful season. Years of relegation battles had fortified him for the challenge.
“I was never in doubt that the team would stay up, because I know how much they wanted the club to be where they wanted it to be. I was not really afraid at all. I just said: ‘OK, this is what I want. This is my dream to be in the Premier League and I have a club that is really, really ready to give me the opportunity.’ “So I said I would go for it. When I had the [initial] meeting with the owners and the coach, I was so impressed with the plan and the structure.”
Awoniyi in pre-season training with Liverpool
Awoniyi says his objective was to “exhibit everything that is in you” and that came to the fore in Forest’s penultimate game, when his goal against Arsenal – the club he supports – secured their top‑flight status.
Forest fans have taken Awoniyi to their hearts and voted him this season’s player of the month for August after he scored three goals in his first three games. The feelings are mutual.
“Looking at the difficulty that we found ourselves in last season, they were still behind us, pushing everyone to keep on fighting … They never gave up on us and that gave us more power to push forward.”
The champions Manchester City host Forest on Saturday and Awoniyi expects to face Manuel Akanji, the most difficult defender he has faced. He will relish the challenge.
“I played against him in the Bundesliga and I know how tough he is. I’ve always believed [success in football] will happen. I’ve always worked hard, I’ve always hoped for it, prayed for it and I’ve always done everything that will make me achieve what I want.”
By Osasu Obayiuwana From The Guardian
More often than not, players’ career fortunes pirouette on the altar of time and chance. Taiwo Awoniyi can attest to that. Had Awoniyi paid for his university exams on the day he was supposed to, in Ilorin, north-central Nigeria, playing in the Premier League for Nottingham Forest, where his decisive goals saved them from relegation last season, might never have happened.
“My dad actually borrowed the money to pay for my exams,” he says. “I went to the person that was supposed to help register me for the exam in the morning and he was not around. I went there again in the evening and they told me he still wasn’t around. “It was on my way back from that trip that I got a call from the Imperial Soccer Academy [in Nigeria’s Ogun State], that they wanted me. I went back to my dad and said: ‘I do want to keep on going to school. But my passion is football, so let me use this money to get myself down to the academy.’ I think that was the turning point for me.”
Awoniyi had been with the Unicorn Football Academy in Ilorin since he was “six or seven” and played for Nigeria as a 14-year-old at the Copa Coca-Cola Cup, a tournament for African teams, in London in 2011. A call-up to the Golden Eaglets, Nigeria’s Under-17 side, that won the 2013 World Cup in the UAE, earned the opportunity he had dreamed of – a five-year contract with Liverpool in 2015. But he never played for the club.
“We discovered that we needed a work permit and to get a permit I needed to play for Nigeria’s first team,” he says. “When I signed, my Nigeria teammate Kelechi Iheanacho got the work permit under the special talent scheme [to join Manchester City]. It was after him that they closed the special talent scheme.
“The only option I had was to keep on going on loan, with the hope that if I do well on loan and I play for the national team, I’ll be able to get the work permit and come back [to Liverpool]. I kept on going on loan. And the national team call-ups still didn’t come, so I didn’t have any other option than to keep on striving.”
In six years, Awoniyi went on loan to six clubs in Germany, the Netherlands and Belgium: FSV Frankfurt, NEC Nijmegen, Royal Excel Mouscron (twice), Gent, Mainz and Union Berlin. Then Union bought him from Liverpool for £6.5m in July 2021, before his move to Forest in 2022.
“It was really a hard and tough situation,” he says of the early years on loan, recalling how his family and Seyi Olofinjana, the former Wolves and Stoke midfielder who founded Imperial Soccer Academy, helped him through it.
“I didn’t really play a lot of games [at Frankfurt] … the team was relegated. I then went to Holland [Nijmegen] and that was another strange experience … we also got relegated … I said to myself, about the third year, if I go down again or I don’t make anything happen, I have to think about my football career.
“It was at Mouscron that I really discovered myself, that I saw myself as the player I wanted to be … I scored a goal in my first match and [10] goals with Mouscron that season.”
Liverpool gave him a second five-year contract but his journeyman status continued, at Gent and Mainz, via Mouscron again, until he found a real home at Union.
“I remember my first conversation with the coach. He said: ‘Taiwo, I’ve seen you. I think I can make you who you want to be as a player. But it is your decision to come.’ It was just an amazing club. It is what a football club should be, in terms of the people, the administrators, everything, especially the fans.”
Awoniyi’s form made him a cult hero, with his final goal for Union earning them a Europa League spot for the first time. “We needed to win. I remember that in the first half I had a penalty and I scored. We were then in the 88th or 89th minute … I was checking the time and I said: ‘No, these people have come a long way for us not to win …’
https://efb9095dae39658896226d0b4cb40cdb.safeframe.googlesyndication.com/safeframe/1-0-40/html/container.html “It’s taken them to where they want to be and where they should be as a club. And from there, they’re now playing in the Champions League. These people deserve even more than that … But they’ve always known that one day I will leave for the Premier League.”
Forest signed Awoniyi after ending a 23-year absence from England’s top division and he knew helping them stay up would constitute a successful season. Years of relegation battles had fortified him for the challenge.
“I was never in doubt that the team would stay up, because I know how much they wanted the club to be where they wanted it to be. I was not really afraid at all. I just said: ‘OK, this is what I want. This is my dream to be in the Premier League and I have a club that is really, really ready to give me the opportunity.’ “So I said I would go for it. When I had the [initial] meeting with the owners and the coach, I was so impressed with the plan and the structure.”
Awoniyi says his objective was to “exhibit everything that is in you” and that came to the fore in Forest’s penultimate game, when his goal against Arsenal – the club he supports – secured their top‑flight status.
Forest fans have taken Awoniyi to their hearts and voted him this season’s player of the month for August after he scored three goals in his first three games. The feelings are mutual.
“Looking at the difficulty that we found ourselves in last season, they were still behind us, pushing everyone to keep on fighting … They never gave up on us and that gave us more power to push forward.”
The champions Manchester City host Forest on Saturday and Awoniyi expects to face Manuel Akanji, the most difficult defender he has faced. He will relish the challenge.
“I played against him in the Bundesliga and I know how tough he is. I’ve always believed [success in football] will happen. I’ve always worked hard, I’ve always hoped for it, prayed for it and I’ve always done everything that will make me achieve what I want.”
By Osasu Obayiuwana From The Guardian
Sports
China’s lending to Africa hits a Low, study shows – The Standard
Kenyans watch the SGR cargo train as it leaves Mombasa for Nairobi, May 30, 2017. The project was a $3.3 billion investment backed by China. [AP Photo]
As China marks the 10th anniversary of the launch of its global infrastructure project, the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), new data show lending to Africa has fallen to its lowest level in almost two decades.
A paper released this week by researchers at Boston University’s Global China Initiative said the pandemic, domestic economic woes, a policy shift and concerns about African debt were among the reasons lending in 2021 and 2022 dropped below $2 billion for the first time since the inception of the BRI.
In 2000-22, Chinese lenders loaned $170 billion to Africa — one of its major BRI partners — the research showed. But after peaking in 2016 at over $28 billion, lending to Africa dropped considerably in the past two years.
In 2021, China loaned $1.22 billion to Africa, and last year only nine loans amounting to $994.48 million were signed.
“Trends show that loan averages and amounts are decreasing and policy framing in China is also shifting, which leads us to expect less large-scale lending over $500 million,” lead researcher Oyintarelado Moses told VOA in an email.
“At the same time, this new policy framing of small and/or beautiful coming from China is showing that there will be smaller-valued loans.”
Social, environmental impact
Moses was referring to what Chinese President Xi Jinping has called Beijing’s “small and beautiful” approach, which aims to shift away from investment in large projects like railways and highways to focus on smaller loans that have more of a socially and environmentally beneficial impact.
Another trend the study found was that while previously most lending went to eastern and southern African countries, in 2021-22 there was a shift to western Africa, with countries like Senegal, Benin and Ivory Coast receiving most of the money.
That is because “these countries have historically borrowed less from China, so China had less loan exposure to these countries,” Moses said, noting that countries in other parts of Africa that have borrowed heavily in the past are currently managing debt distress.
Chinese lenders may also have become more cautious, the study found, because several African countries such as Zambia either have defaulted on their debt or are struggling to repay, leading to Western allegations of unsustainable lending.
In 2021-22, several loans for projects in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Cameroon, Ghana and Zambia were canceled after failed negotiations, the study found.
During that same period, new loans were directed to a wider variety of sectors than in previous years, although transport remained a dominant area.
There were no new investments in energy projects, the African sector that attracted the most previous loans. The paper’s authors think China will continue to look for greener projects to fund after pledging to make the BRI “green” and ending the financing of coal projects overseas.
One of the most recent Chinese investments is a deal with South Africa signed in August to help with its energy crisis. The package will include a grant and emergency equipment from China totaling $30 million.
Two areas in which investments increased in 2021-22 were the environment — such as a loan to Senegal to help in “improving water resources” — and improvement in farming and education, the data showed.
Other reasons for the decrease in lending had more to do with China’s own economic slowdown.
Looking ahead
The study suggests future lending to Africa could include fewer large-scale loans of over $500 million and more loans under $50 million.
“African governments will continue to have demand because of infrastructure deficits and climate goals, but Chinese lenders will likely respond to that demand within these new policy parameters,” Moses told VOA.
“In general, we expect Chinese lending to rebound because of African country demands. But this rebound will likely not return to previous levels,” she said.
Cobus Van Staden, an analyst at the China Global South Project, agreed that lending rates will never again reach the levels seen in 2016.
However, he said, “there’s a tendency, I think, to just see the current decline in lending as, ‘Oh, the BRI’s over,’ which I think is unrealistic.
“I think the BRI has never been a stable thing, and it was always mutating and morphing, and it’s mutating and morphing again at the moment. So it’s going to take on some leaner, greener version of itself, and then we’ll see,” he told VOA.
Van Staden predicted that “as the economy in China improves and comes a little bit back up to speed … I think the lending will creep back up.”
He said he expected this to happen after next year’s Forum on China-Africa Cooperation.
“I think we’re probably in a kind of flat phase at the moment, and then I think it will start creeping back up, because the thing to remember is that Africa isn’t going away.”
Africa needs China and, likewise, Africa also offers China benefits such as access to the continent’s vast mineral resources, he said.
As China marks the 10th anniversary of the launch of its global infrastructure project, the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), new data show lending to Africa has fallen to its lowest level in almost two decades.
A paper released this week by researchers at Boston University’s Global China Initiative said the pandemic, domestic economic woes, a policy shift and concerns about African debt were among the reasons lending in 2021 and 2022 dropped below $2 billion for the first time since the inception of the BRI.
In 2000-22, Chinese lenders loaned $170 billion to Africa — one of its major BRI partners — the research showed. But after peaking in 2016 at over $28 billion, lending to Africa dropped considerably in the past two years.
In 2021, China loaned $1.22 billion to Africa, and last year only nine loans amounting to $994.48 million were signed.
“Trends show that loan averages and amounts are decreasing and policy framing in China is also shifting, which leads us to expect less large-scale lending over $500 million,” lead researcher Oyintarelado Moses told VOA in an email.
“At the same time, this new policy framing of small and/or beautiful coming from China is showing that there will be smaller-valued loans.”
Social, environmental impact
Moses was referring to what Chinese President Xi Jinping has called Beijing’s “small and beautiful” approach, which aims to shift away from investment in large projects like railways and highways to focus on smaller loans that have more of a socially and environmentally beneficial impact.
Another trend the study found was that while previously most lending went to eastern and southern African countries, in 2021-22 there was a shift to western Africa, with countries like Senegal, Benin and Ivory Coast receiving most of the money.
That is because “these countries have historically borrowed less from China, so China had less loan exposure to these countries,” Moses said, noting that countries in other parts of Africa that have borrowed heavily in the past are currently managing debt distress.
Chinese lenders may also have become more cautious, the study found, because several African countries such as Zambia either have defaulted on their debt or are struggling to repay, leading to Western allegations of unsustainable lending.
In 2021-22, several loans for projects in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Cameroon, Ghana and Zambia were canceled after failed negotiations, the study found.
During that same period, new loans were directed to a wider variety of sectors than in previous years, although transport remained a dominant area.
There were no new investments in energy projects, the African sector that attracted the most previous loans. The paper’s authors think China will continue to look for greener projects to fund after pledging to make the BRI “green” and ending the financing of coal projects overseas.
One of the most recent Chinese investments is a deal with South Africa signed in August to help with its energy crisis. The package will include a grant and emergency equipment from China totaling $30 million.
Two areas in which investments increased in 2021-22 were the environment — such as a loan to Senegal to help in “improving water resources” — and improvement in farming and education, the data showed.
Other reasons for the decrease in lending had more to do with China’s own economic slowdown.
Looking ahead
The study suggests future lending to Africa could include fewer large-scale loans of over $500 million and more loans under $50 million.
“African governments will continue to have demand because of infrastructure deficits and climate goals, but Chinese lenders will likely respond to that demand within these new policy parameters,” Moses told VOA.
“In general, we expect Chinese lending to rebound because of African country demands. But this rebound will likely not return to previous levels,” she said.
Cobus Van Staden, an analyst at the China Global South Project, agreed that lending rates will never again reach the levels seen in 2016.
However, he said, “there’s a tendency, I think, to just see the current decline in lending as, ‘Oh, the BRI’s over,’ which I think is unrealistic.
“I think the BRI has never been a stable thing, and it was always mutating and morphing, and it’s mutating and morphing again at the moment. So it’s going to take on some leaner, greener version of itself, and then we’ll see,” he told VOA.
Van Staden predicted that “as the economy in China improves and comes a little bit back up to speed … I think the lending will creep back up.”
He said he expected this to happen after next year’s Forum on China-Africa Cooperation.
“I think we’re probably in a kind of flat phase at the moment, and then I think it will start creeping back up, because the thing to remember is that Africa isn’t going away.”
Africa needs China and, likewise, Africa also offers China benefits such as access to the continent’s vast mineral resources, he said.
West Africa
Whitfeld bags four in big win for Aus PM’s XIII – NRL.COM
Winger Jakiya Whitfeld ran in four tries as the Australian Prime Minister’s XIII overcame their Papua New Guinea counterparts 56-4 on Saturday afternoon.
Whitfeld, who spent this NRLW season with the Wests Tigers, scored a double in each half in an impressive showing which included running for over 200 metres.
While it was a comfortable win for the visitors in the end, it was a performance likely to have pleased PNG coach Ben Jeffries on the back of the Test side making it through to the World Cup semi-finals last year.
The PNG PM’s XIII came up with a number of impressive goal-line stands in defence across the 70 minutes, before bringing the vocal crowd in Port Moresby to their feet with a try in the second half to Latoniya Norris.
Doubles from both Cassey Tohi-Hiku and Whitfeld gave the Australians a 18-0 lead at the break, with gusty conditions contributing to only one of the tries being converted.
Winger Jakiya Whitfeld ran in four tries as the Australian Prime Minister’s XIII overcame their Papua New Guinea counterparts 56-4 on Saturday afternoon.
Whitfeld, who spent this NRLW season with the Wests Tigers, scored a double in each half in an impressive showing which included running for over 200 metres.
While it was a comfortable win for the visitors in the end, it was a performance likely to have pleased PNG coach Ben Jeffries on the back of the Test side making it through to the World Cup semi-finals last year.
The PNG PM’s XIII came up with a number of impressive goal-line stands in defence across the 70 minutes, before bringing the vocal crowd in Port Moresby to their feet with a try in the second half to Latoniya Norris.
Doubles from both Cassey Tohi-Hiku and Whitfeld gave the Australians a 18-0 lead at the break, with gusty conditions contributing to only one of the tries being converted.
–>
<!–
–>
Cassey Tohi-Hiku Try
Leila Kerowa came agonisingly close to getting one back for the hosts just before half-time, but spilled the ball in attempting to ground it.
Tohi-Hiku’s opener came inside two minutes, but thoughts of it being a walk in the park were quickly shut down and Australia were made to work for it from that point on.
Brad Donald’s side did wear their opponents down in the second half though and the game opened up, with Keisha-Leigh Coolwell, Sharks half Brooke Anderson and Jasmin Morrissey scoring in between Whitfeld’s final two.
–>
<!–
–>
Jakiya Whitfeld Try
Eels back Abbi Church brought up the half century with her try four minutes from time, before Dragons fullback Teagan Berry continued her prolific try-scoring in 2023 with a try after the full-time siren.
Match Snapshot
- The Australia PM’s XIII ran in 11 tries in the win and ran for more than double their opponents’ 740 metres.
- Amid strong winds in Port Moresby only six of the 11 tries were converted.
- Eels centre Cassey Tohi-Hiku scored a first-half double.
- Leila Kerowa topped the tackle count for PNG with 19.
- After scoring 11 tries in nine NRLW games this year, Teagan Berry scored on the very last play of the game for Australia.
Play of the Game
You can’t go past this moment when Latoniya Norris sold the defence on a dummy and crashed over from close range to bring up the biggest cheer of the game. As they continue to develop in the women’s game, it’s moments like this PNG can celebrate and gain inspiration from.
–>
<!–
–>
Latoniya Norris Try
Stand Out From The Crowd - A Marketing Tip By ZimMarket
Stand Out From The Crowd
If you happen to be in business and you are not well conversant with the 4 P’s of Marketing, then you are likely to dismally fail, sooner rather than later. In modern day business, the 4 P’s are the traditional and universal cornerstones of Marketing, which are inextricably interrelated. In Marketing, for anything you are selling to be highly competitive, in any given market, it must be, the right Product or service, being offered at the right Place, selling at the right Price, using the right Promotional Marketing Mix. In this marketing tip, I am briefly going to solely dwell on the Promotion aspect, which is an equally significant component of the 4 P’s of the Marketing Mix When you offer products on the market, you must ensure that you adequately educate your potential, as well as your target market, so that your products will become very intimately known and easily identifiable by your customers, from a myriad of other competing products and services on sale. It goes without saying, that this is why your product must “Stand Out From The Crowd”, for your business to remain relevant, lest it will be driven into oblivion. In today's cut-throat marketing competition, you may only achieve to “Stand Out From The Crowd” through an objective, deliberate, persistent, and aggressive marketing strategy, which not only includes mainstream media marketing but also incorporates Online Advertising. This is where, 1Zimbabwe Classifieds | ZimMarket enters into your Marketing Mix, by providing you, the Online advertising medium, in the form of FREE advertising space, on our ZimMarket Classifieds: www.1zimbabweclassifieds.co.zw The old adage says, “Gone are the days when one would say “A Good Wine Needs No Bush”. That’s Why, Coca-Cola, of all Companies in the world, is still advertising to this dayWe are there for you, it is our business tradition, to link buyers to sellers.
www.1zimbabweclassifieds.co.zw
www.1southafricaclassifieds.com
General inquiries : Info@1zimbabweclassifieds.co.zw
Technical Support: admin@1zimbabweclassifieds.co.zw
One Zimbabwe Market Classifieds | ZimMarket
Linking Buyers To Sellers Is Our Business Tradition
Published By The Founder & Managing Director Of: ZimMarket Digital Technologies Inc. :
Joel Masuka
-
Fashion5 days agoDerry City & Strabane – Plumbridge based fashion designer Madge … – Derry City and Strabane District Council
-
holiday1 day agoThe ‘Cult of David’: More Former Employees of David Adjaye Allege They Were Overworked, Underpaid, and Victims of ‘Emotional Abuse’ – artnet News
-
arts and culture1 day agoBahrain’s head of antiquities on why making the World Heritage List … – The National
-
Fashion4 days agoThe “lêkê”, poor man’s shoes that have become a symbol of Ivorian culture – Africanews English
-
Fashion3 days agoThe 2023 CFDA/Vogue Fashion Fund Finalists Take New York … – Vogue
-
religion1 day agoPope Francis visits Marseille as anti-migrant views grow in Europe with talk of fences and blockades – ABC News
-
health1 day ago
Integration of Human Immunodeficiency Viruses (HIV) and Sexual and Reproductive Health (SRH) services yield massive results in Zimbabwe – ZAWYA
-
Fashion5 days ago15 Times Meghan Has Flown The Flag For Sustainable Fashion – British Vogue
